The Great Library of Alexandria

Though public libraries first appeared in the fourth century BC, private libraries were quite common in
those times as well. Aristotle, for instance, had a large private collection. The ancient geographer Strabo
wrote: ‘Aristotle was the first to put together a collection of books and to teach the Egyptian kings how
to arrange a library’. That library, of course, was the Great Library of Alexandria. The Great Library of
Alexandria no longer exists, but it is not known for sure when the library was destroyed or who
destroyed it.
Julius Caesar is traditionally accused of demolishing the library in Alexandria. It is true that Julius
Caesar invaded Alexandria in 48-47 BC and his army set the fleet of ships in Alexandria harbour on fire.
Some historians believe that this fire in the harbour spread into the city of Alexandria and burned the
library down. However, there is hardly any evidence to prove this fact. The conclusion which seems to
be most accepted today is that the library in Alexandria existed, at least in part, four centuries after the
death of Julius Caesar. At that time, at the end of the fourth century AD, there was a general movement
to destroy temples and libraries and it seems more likely that the Alexandria library was destroyed at that
time.
The library of Alexandria is believed to have been a magnificent building housing the greatest collection
of scientific works of the time. It was founded by Ptolemy I, the General whom Alexander the Great
appointed as the ruler of the city named after him. It was Ptolemy’s son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who
decided to expand the library and succeeded in making it famous for its unique collection of
manuscripts. Under Ptolemy II and those who followed, the library continued to expand. Ptolemy II
wanted to create a library containing every Greek work ever written, as well as all the works from other
parts of the Western world that could be gathered together. The number of manuscripts in the library is
thought to have been between 300 000 and 700 000.
As each manuscript had to be copied by hand, a huge number of people were employed in preparing
manuscripts for the library. Manuscripts were bought, borrowed or taken from all over the Western
world to be copied and placed in the library. However, it was quite common to copy an original
manuscript, to return the copy to the owner and to keep the original for the library. Manuscripts were
often received from foreign powers in return for traded goods. Forcing citizens to pay their debts to the
government by giving manuscripts was also very common. It was in these ways that so many
manuscripts were collected in the library of Alexandria.

History of Cinema

In December 1895 the Lumiere brothers projected the first film onto a screen for a paying audience and
cinema was born. That simple, silent show took place in a hotel basement in California. Most early films
were shown at music halls or fairgrounds. In 1905 the first ‘nickelodeon’ opened in Pittsburgh in the USA.
This was a cinema which charged a nickel (5 cents) for admission. Within three years there were 5000
‘nickelodeons’ throughout America. Going to the movies soon became a popular pastime around the world.
With their richly designed interior, cinemas gave audiences a chance to observe the luxurious lives of the
characters on the screen. But not all cinemas were glamorous. Small movie theatres in local neighbourhoods
were often cramped and dirty. In many countries, travelling projectionists toured the countryside showing
films on transportable screens in village halls or even outdoors.
Talking pictures arrived in 1927, and films became more popular than ever. Millions of people went to the
movies during the 1930s, often several times a week. Along with the main feature film, audiences could see
a cartoon or a documentary about interesting people, places or wildlife. Before there was news on
television, the news of the week was presented in film ‘newsreels’. During World War Two, people saw the
latest battles on newsreels at their local cinemas. After the war people stopped going to the cinema so
regularly. Cinema’s biggest rival was television. In order to attract more audience, film-makers began to use
expensive technology which TV could not compete with. A growing number of films were made in
technicolour and stereophonic sound was used. Wide-screen films set in ancient or biblical times, with huge
number of actors and expensive sets and costumes, were popular throughout the 1950s. People could even
watch films from inside their cars at huge outdoor ‘drive-in’ cinemas. Films shot in 3-D were less
successful, as audiences disliked wearing special glasses.
In spite of the new technology, in the 1960s attendances continued to drop. Thousands of cinemas
throughout the world were forced to close. Some of the bigger theatres were divided up into a number of
smaller cinemas. In the mid-1970s, big budget blockbusters, packed with fast-moving action and special
effects, began to attract a new generation of young film-goers. When these movies were released on video
cassettes, people had the chance to own their favourite films for the first time. The invention of digital
video has made it possible to store moving images on compact disks. When the films are played on special
CD ROM and DVD systems, viewers can not only watch the action on the screen, but also interact with it.
Soon it will be possible to change the story lines of films and even act in them yourself!

Where’s that music coming from?

What is your favourite type of music? Do you know anything about its history? Over the years, as people
have moved or travelled, they have taken with them the music of their cultures – Celtic folk from Ireland
and the U.K., flamenco from Spain, or bhangra from India. As a result, a lot of present day popular music
has originated from the traditional songs and rhythms heard in various countries around the world. For
decades, musicians have adapted traditional musical styles to make them more appealing to ordinary
people. Bob Marley made reggae, previously unique to Jamaica, popular around the world in the 1970s
and 1980s, with hits like ‘No Woman, No Cry’. Now, this rhythm can still be heard on beaches across the
globe.
Bhangra, a traditional music originally played to celebrate harvests or weddings in Indian villages, was
brought to the U.K. by Indian immigrants. It became popular in the 1980s as the Indian immigrant
population grew. This lively, energetic, drum-based beat has been mixed with other musical genres such
as jazz and rock. Bhangra influence can now be heard on dance floors in the cities like London and
Singapore, where a high percentage of the population comes from Indian immigrant families.
In the U.S., Rock and Roll has its roots in African-American culture and in traditional musical styles such
as Rhythm and Blues. By the mid-50s many white musicians, such as Elvis Presley, were singing and
playing music that was previously performed only by black artists. Many DJs in the U.S. also began
playing this ‘new’ music, now called Rock and Roll, on the radio stations. A sound that began in small
nightclubs in the U.S. was eventually exported to other parts of the world. Likewise, jazz is a style of
music that originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African-American communities in the
Southern United States. From its early development until the present, jazz has incorporated music from
19th and 20th century American popular music. The word ‘jazz’ (in early years also spelt ‘jass’) began as
a West Coast slang term and was first used to refer to music in Chicago in about 1915.
Language has helped to popularize music from different countries. The Japanese pop star Hikaru Utada
became famous in her native country, and around the world, by combining Japanese pop styles with lyrics
in English. Other artists, such as the Spaniard Enrique Iglesias, mix English lyrics with their native
languages and have also made a big impact on the world pop scene. Much of the pop music we hear today
is a mixture of styles from various parts of the world. With the ability now to share music using the
Internet, the musical styles we listen to may become even more appealing and diverse tomorrow.